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The First National Communication on Climate Change
| INTRODUCTION | 3.
NATIONAL CIRCUMSTANCES | GREENHOUSE GAS INVENTORY | 
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3. NATIONAL CIRCUMSTANCES
Ukraine is the second largest country in Europe (after the Russia) with an area of 603.7 thousand km2. The population of the country (1995) is 51.7 million people, including urban population - 35.1 million, and rural population - 16.6 million. Around 73% of the total population are of Ukrainian origin. The capital of Ukraine is Kyiv.
Ukraine is situated in south-west of Eastern-european Plain. To the west of country Ukrainian Carpathians are located, to the south, along southern coast of the Black Sea - Crimean Mountains; from the south its coasts are washed by Black and Azov Seas. From the north to the south territory of Ukraine stretches from 52° 22’54’’ to 44° 23’18’’of n.l., almost for 900 km, and from the west to the east - from 22° 08’42’’ to 40° 13’05’’ of w.l., for 1,300 km.
The flat part of the country covers 95% of overall area (573.5 thousand km2). In the northern part Polissya is situated - swampy lowland; left-bank region of Dnieper is occupied with Prydneprovskaya Lowland. From extreme north-east spurs of Middle-russian Hills penetrate into Ukraine. In south-east Donetsk Ridge and Pryazovskaya Hills are situated. Central and western parts of right-bank of Dnieper are occupied with Prydneprovskaya, Volyn’ and Podol’sk Hills.
In the south of the country the Prychernomorskaya Lowland is located, which is connected with Northern-crimean Plain through Perekop’s Isthmus.
Within flat territory natural zones are rather clearly marked. In the north zone of mixed forests is situated (19% of the territory). Forest-steppe zone occupies 34% of country territory. Steppe zone is situated to the south of Ukraine and occupies about 40% of the territory. Carpathian and Crimean Mountains are characterized with altitudinal zonality of present landscapes.
Ukraine has rather dense river system. Rivers mostly belong to basins of Black and Azov Seas. The largest river of Ukraine is Dnieper, basin of which occupies а half of the country territory, and average runoff of which is 53.3 km3.
There are significant deposits of а number of treasures of the soil in Ukraine - coal, oil, gas, iron ore, manganese, titanium, uranium, bauxites, nephelines, alunites, kaolines, rock-salt, potassium sulfate, etc.
Fertile soils are the most important resources for agriculture of the country. The most fertile soils in Ukraine are chernozems with humus content from 3 to 7% and with thickness of humus layer of 130 - 150 cm. They occupy more than 10% of territory. Besides, considerable areas are occupied with Grey Forest soils in Forest-steppe zone and with Chestnut ones - in Steppe zone, which are featured with high fertility as well.
Table 3-1 presents general information on economical and natural potential of Ukraine.
Table 3-1. General information on economical and natural potential of Ukraine (1995)
|
Population |
millions of persons |
51.7 |
|
Population increment |
% |
0.35 |
|
Urban population |
millions of persons |
35.1 |
|
Gross Domestic Product |
billions of US dollars |
35.3 |
|
Income per capita |
US dollars |
657 |
|
Share of industry in GDP |
% |
67.3 |
|
Water consumption, including |
km3 (%) |
26.93 (100) |
|
agriculture |
1.66 (6.2) |
|
|
irrigation |
6.2 (23) |
|
|
industry |
13.5 (50.1) |
|
|
drinking water demands |
4.64 (17.2) |
|
|
other demands |
0.93 (3.5) |
|
|
Land fund, icluding |
million ha |
36 |
|
crops under cultivation |
% |
55.3 |
|
forested area |
% |
15.4 |
|
pastures and hay-fields |
% |
12.4 |
|
under water |
% |
4.0 |
|
perennial plantations |
% |
1.8 |
|
wood-bush plantations |
% |
1.5 |
|
swamps |
% |
1.5 |
|
other lands |
% |
8.1 |
3. 1 Climate
Climate of Ukraine is of moderate-continental type, except of narrow belt of Southern Coast of Crimea with features of subtropic climate. Rather important factor of Ukraine climate formation is atmospheric circulation: prevailing western direction of air transfer presumes inflow of Atlantic air masses, from time to time air masses invade territory of the country from Asia continent, from northern latitudes, from Mediterranean Sea. Differences in circulation conditions of the west and the east are clearly manifested in increase of continentality of climate from the west to the east. In regions of Carpathian and Crimean Mountains changes of climatic elements depend greatly upon altitude of region and exposure of mountainsides: with increase of altitude atmospheric pressure and temperature are lowered, amount of precipitation is increased, period of time with snow cover becomes longer, wind speed is increased. Influence of Volyn’-Podol’sk Plateau and Donetsk Ridge upon climatic conditions is of less significance. It results mainly in small decrease of temperature, changes of duration of snow cover laying.
Black and Azov Seas influence climate of Ukraine significantly too. Increase of air humidity and smoothing of diurnal cycle of air temperature are marked in coastal regions.
In Polissya region the climate is temperate, humid and is characterised with prevailing transfer of Atlantic air. Western part of Polissya is featured with increased cloudiness in summer season, relatively cool summer, soft winter and excessive precipitation. Average temperature in January is -4...-5° C, while in eastern part it reaches -7...-8° C. The most severe winters are in eastern part of Polissya, where their duration is 20 days longer approximately. Spring and autumn in Polissya are protracted, since inflow of humid sea air is accompanied with significant cloudiness and precipitation, which hinder air from heating in spring and its cooling in autumn. During summer seasons the lowest temperatures are observed in western part of Polissya, where average temperature in July is 17...18° C; to the east it increases up to 19...20° C. Annual precipitation makes 500 - 600 mm. During warm period about 70% of total precipitation falls, while 30% are referred to cold period. Sometimes droughts and dry winds are marked in Polissya.
Climate of Forest-steppe zone is temperate continental. The lowest average temperatures of January are observed in eastern Forest-steppe (-7...-8° C); to the west they increase to -4...-6° C. Summer is warm: average temperature in July to the west of the zone is 18...19° C, while to the east it equals to 19...21° C. Annual totals of precipitation are decreased from 700 - 550 mm in western region to 575 - 500 mm in eastern region. In Forest-steppe zone number of days with hot dry winds is increased in comparison with Polissya zone. In eastern regions it approaches 11 days, in western - from 1 to 8 days.
Region of steppe atlantic-continental climate occupies whole Steppe zone of Ukraine, including steppe part of the Crimea. Climate there is featured with the most continentality and aridity, when compared with other zones of Ukraine. Summers are hot, winters are cold, in most cases with poor snowing. Average temperatures of January vary from -7° C in north-east to -2° C in south-east of the zone. Winters here are characterized with strong thaws, followed often by sharp cooling. Average monthly temperature in July is 21...30° C. Annual totals of precipitation are decreased from the north to the south. In southern regions of the zone they amount to 250 - 300 mm. Ukrainian Steppe is а region with the least relative air humidity, therefore droughts, dry winds and dusty storms are marked here most frequently.
In Carpathian Mountains significant rising of terrain causes sharp vertical zonality in distribution of climatic elements.
Lower in altitude Crimean Mountains are characterized with vertical zonality as well.
3.2 Economics
The economy of Ukraine, up to declaration of independence in 1991, was developing as а part of an economic system of the USSR under circumstances of both central planning system and practically insulated markets of the USSR and Comecon countries. Structure and levels of prices of goods and services differed from those on the world market highly. The regional and global ecological problems were practically ignored.
Proceeding from general economical interests of the former USSR and available natural resources potential top priority was given to the development of heavy industrial sectors (Fuel & Energy Complex, Metallurgy, Machinery & Equipment) and Agriculture.
In 1991 Ukraine set about restructuring of the economy towards the market development and democratic state formation. However, the transient period turned very painful, and the country entered serious and growing economic crisis, which was featured by the following:
- drop of industrial output, especially in industries of low energy intensity, and, as а consequence, GDP decrease and its energy intensity growth;
- swelling problems of payment for critical energy carriers import, that determines constant negative external trade balance and problem energy supply in the country;
- steady rising budget deficit;
- high inflation rates;
- abrupt standard of living decrease for the most part of population;
- social tension growth (Table 3–2).
Table 3–2. Economics. GDP, Inflation and Unemployment Trends
|
1990 |
1991 |
1992 |
1993 |
1994 |
1995 |
|
|
GDP, 109 $ |
73.62 |
67.21 |
60.56 |
51.96 |
40.01 |
35.29 |
|
Unemployment, thousand person |
- |
9.8 |
128 |
180.9 |
216 |
126 |
|
Inflation % |
- |
- |
1310 |
4830 |
990 |
420 |
Source: Ministry of Economy
At present, the economy escape from the crisis is considered to be connected with the following: production stabilization and its following progress, privatization passage, legislation settling, improvement of taxation sphere and currency regulations, restoration of economic contacts with CIS countries and support of developed ones.
3.3 Energy Use
Ukraine belongs to high energy intensity countries. In 1990 specific energy consumption per GDP unit produced exceeded that of developed countries. For the posterior years this index has been dropping back due to considerable production fall in the country (Table 3–3).
Table 3–3. Energy Intensity
1990 |
1991 |
1992 |
1993 |
1994 |
1995 |
|
|
GDP, 109 $ |
73.62 |
67.21 |
60.56 |
51.96 |
40.01 |
35.29 |
|
Energy Consumption, PJ |
10342.9 |
10017.7 |
8907.2 |
7931.5 |
6900.2 |
6630.6 |
|
Energy Intensity, PJ per billion $ |
141 |
149 |
147 |
152 |
172 |
188 |
The high level of outdated and outworn energy intensive production together with low privatization rates and absence of bankruptcy mechanism, deficiency of domestic fuel and energy resources, not sufficient amount of capital stock at enterprises and environmental problems have led to high energy cost levels, low efficiency of social production and energy crisis deepening.
Production decrease and energy recession have resulted in balance of payments crisis, external indebtedness growth and nonpayment problems aggravation. According to the Government estimates (as for the fall 1995), energy supply matter has transformed into the national security problem. Ukrainian trade balance for 1996 showed that costs for raw stuff and materials for Fuel and Energy Complex made up more than 50%. Energy carriers deficit is covered mainly by import from Russia, that leads to the necessity of diversification of energy carriers import sources. In 1995 Ukrainian total needs in primary domestic energy resources were met for 40-50%, including coal - for 83%, gas - for 21%, oil - for 16% (Table 3–4). For the latest years, production of main types of energy resources, mainly coal, tends to decrease.
Table 3–4. Primary Energy Production and Consumption
|
1990 |
1991 |
1992 |
1993 |
1994 |
1995 |
|
|
Production |
||||||
|
Coal (mln t) |
130.7 |
108.7 |
105.4 |
91.0 |
75.9 |
65.6 |
|
Oil (mln t) |
5.3 |
4.9 |
4.2 |
4.1 |
4.0 |
4.1 |
|
Natural gas (bln m3) |
28.1 |
24.3 |
20.9 |
19.2 |
18.3 |
18.2 |
|
Biomass (mln t) |
4.3 |
4.0 |
3.7 |
4.1 |
4.0 |
3.9 |
|
Import |
||||||
|
Coal (mln t) |
21.1 |
12.7 |
11.7 |
8.7 |
7.5 |
16.0 |
|
Oil (mln t) |
54.3 |
49.6 |
35.3 |
19.7 |
15.8 |
13.3 |
|
Natural gas (bln m3) |
87.3 |
89.5 |
89.1 |
79.8 |
69.1 |
66.3 |
|
Oil products (mln t) |
11.5 |
13.1 |
5.0 |
6.2 |
6.5 |
9.5 |
|
Export |
||||||
|
Coal (mln t) |
20.0 |
13.7 |
7.8 |
3.5 |
4.6 |
2.4 |
|
Oil products (mln t) |
11.3 |
8.4 |
6.4 |
1.1 |
1.7 |
1.4 |
|
Consumption |
||||||
|
Coal (mln t) |
131.8 |
107.7 |
109.3 |
96.2 |
78.8 |
79.2 |
|
Oil and oil products (mln t) |
59.6 |
59.2 |
38.4 |
29.0 |
24.8 |
25.4 |
|
Pure natural gas (bln m3) |
118.7 |
118.2 |
114.1 |
102.799 |
92.5 |
85.4 |
|
Biomass (mln t) |
4.3 |
4 |
3.7 |
4.1 |
4 |
3.9 |
Power production and consumption structure in Ukraine have undergone considerable transformation. Total power production decreased from 296.3 to 192.5 bln kwh between the years 1990 and 1995 (Table 3–5), though fixed capacity did not change and made about 54.6 Gwt, from these - 66.5% of electricity was generated at TPP, 25% - at NPP, 8.5% - at HPP and HPSP. The heat generation dropped from 68% in 1990 to 56% in 1995.
Table 3–5. Electric Power Production Trends, billion kwh
|
1990 |
1991 |
1992 |
1993 |
1994 |
1995 |
|
|
Thermal Power Plants |
201.7 |
182.5 |
162.4 |
135.9 |
115.8 |
107.0 |
|
Hydropower Plants |
10.7 |
11.9 |
8.1 |
11.2 |
12.3 |
10.1 |
|
Blockstations |
7.7 |
7.2 |
6.8 |
6.0 |
4.6 |
4.9 |
|
Nuclear Power Plants |
76.2 |
75.1 |
73.7 |
75.2 |
68.8 |
70.5 |
|
TOTAL |
296.3 |
276.7 |
251.0 |
228.3 |
201.5 |
192.5 |
|
Balance with CIS countries |
0.16 |
1.14 |
1.12 |
1.56 |
0.57 |
1.27 |
|
Export excluding CIS |
-28.13 |
-15.44 |
-5.77 |
-2.71 |
-1.59 |
-4.10 |
|
Export Netto |
-27.97 |
-14.31 |
-4.65 |
-1.15 |
-1.02 |
-2.83 |
|
Total Consumption |
268.33 |
262.39 |
246.35 |
227.15 |
200.48 |
189.67 |
In electricity consumption volume, industry’s share decreased from 64% in 1990 to 54% in 1995, while residential sector’s share grew up from 9% to 19% (Table 3–6).
Table 3–6. Electric Power Consumption Trends, billion kwh
|
1990 |
1991 |
1992 |
1993 |
1994 |
1995 |
|
|
Industry |
146.2 |
137.7 |
126.3 |
108.0 |
88.6 |
81.1 |
|
Agriculture |
20.5 |
20.7 |
19.1 |
18.4 |
16.8 |
13.6 |
|
Transport |
14.4 |
13.6 |
12.5 |
12.1 |
10.8 |
10.3 |
|
Service |
17.6 |
17.8 |
17.2 |
16.7 |
15.7 |
14.8 |
|
Others |
7.5 |
7.5 |
6.1 |
5.8 |
4.9 |
4.5 |
|
TOTAL |
206.2 |
197.3 |
181.2 |
161.0 |
136.8 |
124.3 |
|
Household |
21.1 |
24.2 |
24.9 |
26.9 |
26.8 |
27.0 |
|
Urban |
17.5 |
17.4 |
18.0 |
|||
|
Rural |
9.4 |
9.3 |
9.0 |
|||
|
Total Netto |
227.3 |
221.5 |
206.1 |
187.9 |
163.6 |
151.3 |
|
Total Brutto |
268.3 |
262.4 |
246.3 |
227.2 |
200.6 |
189.8 |
Since 1991, the state has been paying much attention to the energy sector development. In 1994 Ukrainian Parliament adopted the Concept on Fuel and Energy Complex Development up to 2010; based on which National Energy Program of Ukraine was developed in 1996.
The Concept and the Program determine energy policy of the state, its main priorities: energy conservation, domestic energy resources use, renewable energy sources development, targeted investments into strategic fields of the economy.
To fulfill national energy conservation policy Ukrainian Parliament adopted Law of Ukraine “On Energy Conservation”, and special state body - State Committee for Energy Conservation was formed. The Government of Ukraine elaborated Comprehensive National Program on Energy Conservation, which was approved by the Parliament in 1996.
In 1995 Parliament of Ukraine approved Program of Restructuring of Ukrainian Economy, which envisaged considerable decrease of energy intensive production processes.
As energy sector is under reformation, the problem of development and adoption of general economic regulations becoming more actual. Such regulations are designed for the functioning of state monopoly and competition in energy sector, state regulation (role and terms of licensing, terms for granting subsidies, concessions, energy carriers exchange functioning), improving taxation and price policy.
3.4 Environment
In the former Soviet Union the environmental legislation was very poor. The Law of the Parliament “On Environmental Protection” was among the first legislation acts of the independent Ukraine. Later the following legal provision was adopted by the Parliament of Ukraine: Law of Ukraine “On Protection of Atmosphere”(1992), Law of Ukraine “On Wildlife” (1994), Law of Ukraine “On Changes and Amendments to the Code of Ukraine with concern to Administrative Infringements”(1993), which empowers the bodies of the Ministry for Environmental Protection and Nuclear Safety of Ukraine to take legal steps in the case of administrative infringements in the field of environmental safety, Resolution of the Parliament of Ukraine “On the Red Book of Ukraine” (1992), Resolution of the Parliament of Ukraine “On Adopted Terms and Conditions of Restriction Temporary Suspension (Stoppage), or Cessation of Activities of Enterprises, Institutions, Organizations and Projects in the Case of their Infringement of the Law on Environmental Protection Provisions” (1992), Resolution of the Parliament of Ukraine “On Conditions of Import (or Transit) of Waste Products and Utility Waste on the Territory of Ukraine” (1993), Law of Ukraine “On Changes and Amendments to the Criminal Code and Criminal Procedure Code of Ukraine” (1994), which specify criminal and fiduciary responsibilities for infringement of conditions of import (or transit) of waste products and utility waste on the territory of Ukraine, Law of Ukraine “On Ecological Examination” (1995).
Besides, some Decrees of the President of Ukraine were enforced, namely: “On Protection and Development of Natural Reserves of Ukraine” (1993), “On Wildlife Reserves in Ukraine” (1993).
In 1997 the National Climate Program was adopted by the Cabinet of Ministries.
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| INTRODUCTION |  Table of Contents | GREENHOUSE GAS INVENTORY |
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