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The First National Communication on Climate Change

 

NATIONAL CIRCUMSTANCES

GREENHOUSE GAS INVENTORY

POLICIES AND MEASURES TO MITIGATE CLIMATE CHANGE

 

4. Greenhouse Gas inventory

Central to any study of climate change is the development of an emission inventory that identifies and quantifies а country’s primary sources and sinks of GHG. The inventory process is important for two reasons: (1) it provides а basis for the ongoing development of а comprehensive and detailed methodology for estimating sources and sinks of greenhouse gases, and (2) it provides а common and consistent mechanism that enables all signatory countries to the United Nations’ Framework Convention on Climate Change to estimate emissions and to compare the relative contributions of different emission sources and greenhouse gases to climate change. Moreover, systematically and consistently estimating emissions at the national and international levels is а prerequisite for evaluating the cost-effectiveness and feasibility of pursuing possible mitigation strategies and adopting emission reduction technologies.

This chapter summarizes the sources and sinks of Ukraine GHG emissions and uptakes. The emission estimates presented here were calculated using the IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories [6, 18], to ensure that the emission inventories submitted to the Framework Convention are consistent and comparable across sectors and among nations. Ukraine has followed these guidelines, except where more detailed data or methodologies were available for major sources of emissions.

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4.1 Ukrainian Greenhouse Gas Emissions

Greenhouse gases include carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄), nitrous oxide (N₂O), water vapor and ozone (O₃) directly contributing to the greenhouse effect.

Chlorofluorocarbons (Cfcs), а family of human-made compounds, its substitute hydrofluorocarbons (Hfcs), and other compounds, such as perfluorinated carbons (Pfcs), are also greenhouse gases. In addition, there are other “photochemically important” gases, such as carbon monoxide (CO), oxides of nitrogen (NO_x), and nonmethane volatile organic compounds (Nmvocs) that are not greenhouse gases, but contribute indirectly to the greenhouse effect. These are commonly referred to as “tropospheric ozone precursors” because they influence the rate at which ozone and other gases are created and destroyed in the atmosphere.

Although carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide occur naturally in the atmosphere, their recent atmospheric build-up appears to be largely the result of human activities. This build-up has altered the composition of the Earth’s atmosphere and may affect future global climate. Since 1800, atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide have increased by 30, 145 and 15 percent respectively [18].

Use of chlorofluorocarbons is phased out under the 1987 Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer.

Ukrainian Inventory carrying out in accordance with UN FCCC commitments, touches upon three direct GHG: carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄), nitrous oxide (N₂O) and three “photochemically important” gases: carbon monoxide (CO), oxides of nitrogen (NO_x), and nonmethane volatile organic compounds (Nmvocs).

The concept of global warming potential (GWP) has been developed to compare the abilities of each greenhouse gas to trap heat in the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide was chosen as the “reference” gas. Gases are presented in units of gigagrams of carbon equivalent (Gg CE). Carbon comprises 12/44 of carbon dioxide by weight.

The GWP of а greenhouse gas is а ratio of global warming - or radiative forcing (both direct and indirect) - from one kilogram of а greenhouse gas to one kilogram of carbon dioxide over а period of time. This report uses the 100-year Gwps recommended by the IPCC (Table 4–1).

Table 4–1. Global Warming Potential of Greenhouse Gases, 100 Years

Gas	GWP
Carbon Dioxide	1
Methane	21
Nitrous Oxide	310

The Ukrainian inventory deals with the following five categories of GHG sources and sinks: energy systems (including transportation), industrial processes, agriculture, forestry and land-use change, and wastes.

The current Ukraine Greenhouse Gas Inventory for 1990 is summarized in Table 4–2. The totals presented in the summary tables in this chapter may not equal the sum of the individual source categories due to rounding. For the base year total GHG emissions were 232 882 Gg of carbon equivalent. CO₂ emissions were partly offset by an uptake of carbon in Ukrainian forests of 14 175 Gg of carbon equivalent in 1990.

Table 4–2. Ukrainian Greenhouse Gas Emissions, 1990, Gg

Gas/source	Emissions (Full Molecular Weight)	Emissions (Direct and Indirect Effects; Carbon Equivalent)
Greenhouse Gases
Net Carbon Dioxide	648 131	176 763
Fossil Fuel Combustion	668 332	182 272
Industrial processes	31 775	8 666
Total	700 107	190 938
Forestry (sink)	-51 976	-14 175
Methane	9 453	54 140
Energy	6 265	35 881
Agriculture	2 254	12 909
Waste	934	5 349
Nitrous Oxide	23.412	1 979
Energy	6.708	567
Chemistry	6.160	521
Waste	0.132	11
Forest fires	0.175	15
Agricultural soils	10.237	865
Photochemically Important Gases
Carbon Monoxide (CO)	7 481	-
Nitrogen Oxides (NOX)	1 243	-
Nonmethane Volatile Organic Compounds (Nmvocs)	656	-
Net Emissions		232 882

Figure 4-1 illustrates the relative contribution of the primary greenhouse gases to Ukrainian emissions in 1990. The shares of different sectors in GHG emissions are presented at the Figure 4-2.

Figure 4-1. Greenhouse Gases emissions in 1990, Gg

 

 

Figure 4-2. Sources of Greenhouse Gases in 1990 %

Due largely to fossil fuel consumption, carbon dioxide emissions accounted for the largest share - approximately 76 percent. Methane accounted for 23 percent of total emissions, which included contributions from agricultural activities and landfills, among others. The nitrous oxide emissions are less important comprising 1 percent of total emissions.

The emissions of the photochemically important gases CO, NO_x and Nmvocs are not included in Figure 4-2, because there is no agreed-upon method to estimate their contribution to climate change. These gases only affect radiative force indirectly.

Statistical data for the development of the National GHG Emission Inventory for 1990 were collected and analyzed according to the IPCC Methodology. Official statistical data from Ukrainian Ministries and Departments were used. Information gaps in several emission source categories have produced а high level of uncertainty in the results. All statistical data used and emission assessments have previously appeared in official Ukrainian publications [14].

The following sections present the anthropogenic sources of greenhouse gas emissions, briefly discuss the emissions pathway, summarize the emissions estimates, and explain the relative importance of emissions from each source category.

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4.2 Energy Sector and Transportation

Fuel combustion and fugitive emissions from fuels were considered in category “Energy sector and transportation” as the main sources of greenhouse gases.

After the disintegration of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), the most important problem for Ukraine was dependence from energy import. However, for the last few years, domestic fossil fuel production has been diminishing steadily. Coal production decreased from 164.2 million metric tons (MMT) in 1990 to 130 MMT in 1994; oil production decreased from 5.2 MMT in 1990 to 4.2 MMT in 1993; and natural gas production decreased from 19.8 billion m³ in 1990 to 19.4 billion m³ in 1993 [11,21]. Despite the low level of domestic oil production, Ukraine has large facilities for oil refining, which are capable of processing 60 MMT of oil per year [11,15]. Gas is transported from Russia to а number of European countries through the Ukrainian territory at а rate of more than 100 billion m³ per year.

In 1990 total fossil fuel consumption in Ukraine totaled 9,365.73 PJ (Table 4–3). The main consumers of fuel are electricity and heat production, and industry (Figure 4-3).

Table 4–3. Fossil Fuel Consumption in Ukraine by Sectors

Sector	PJ	Percent
Energy	4,046.33	43.20
Industry	2,834.39	30.26
Transportation	791.78	8.45
Agriculture	325.14	3.47
Household & Services	1,263.31	13.49
Others	104.78	1.12
Total	9,365.73	100

Figure 4-3. Fossil Fuel Consumption by Sectors in Ukraine

The 1990 Energy Balance of Ukraine [15] was the main source of statistical data of fuel consumption. However, the types of fuel and sectors included in this document differ from the IPCC Methodology. Therefore special software was designed to reformat the official statistical data according to the IPCC worksheets format; to calculate fuel production, import, export, and other parameters; and to transform the data into the units used by the IPCC.

Carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions for 1990 were estimated according to both the "bottom-up" and "top-down" methods. The bottom-up method used data on fuel and energy resources consumed in seventeen sectors of the Ukrainian economy. The top-down method used data on total values of fuel consumption. Carbon dioxide emission factors were taken from the IPCC Methodology [6].

Estimates of emissions from fuel combustion are presented in Table 4–4. NON-CO₂ emission assessments were taken from national statistical information [13] for stationary sources.

Table 4–4. GHG Emissions for Fossil Fuel Combustion for stationary sources, Gg

Source	CO2	CH4	N20	CO	NOx	Nmvocs
Fuel Combustion	668,332.0	35.6	6.7	3,273.0	760.7	265.1

Methane emission factors for fuel production, transportation, and primary processing were assessed according to Ukrainian experts data and IPCC Guidelines. Table 4–5 presents CH₄ emission estimates in Ukraine for 1990, and Table 4–6 - the corresponding emission factors. In order to account Ukrainian circumstances minimum and maximum emissions and emission factors were calculated by national experts.

Table 4–5. CH₄ Emissions for the Fuel Production, Transportation, Processing and Storage in Ukraine, Gg

Sources	Base	Minimum	Maximum
Coal	2,784.87	2,180.35	3,610.12
Oil and gas	3,444.52	1,696.38	4,558.65
Total	6,229.39	3,876.73	8,168.77

Table 4–6. CH₄ Emission Factors for the Production, Transportation, Processing, and Storage of Fossil Fuels in Ukraine

Activity	Units	Emissions Factor
Underground mining
Coal mining (Donetsk Basin)	m3 CH4/t	25.5
Coal mining (Lviv-volyn Basin)	m3 CH4/t	12.8
Postmining activity	m3 CH4/t	2.0
Surface mining
Coal mining	m3 CH4/t	1.2
Postmining activity	m3 CH4/t	0.2
Oil-refining systems
Prospecting and drilling	kg CH4/drill-hole	no data
Production	kg CH4/pj	4,500
Transportation	kg CH4/pj	745
Processing	kg CH4/pj	1,000
Storage	kg CH4/pj	180
Natural gas systems
Extraction	kg CH4/pj	450,000
Processing, distribution, and storage	kg CH4/pj	600,000
Venting and Flaring	kg CH4/pj	14,000

There are no published statistical data on GHG emissions from mobile sources in Ukraine for 1990. The main source of emissions is road vehicles, which in 1990 consumed more than 10 MMT of petroleum, 14 MMT of diesel fuel, about 48 thousand metric tons of propane-butane, and 284 million m³ of natural gas [3]. Road vehicles in Ukraine have а very low fuel efficiency; they use 1.4 to 1.5 times more fuel than similar automobiles and buses in developed countries. Consequently, GHG emissions per km are higher. Table 4–7 presents estimates of GHG emissions from mobile sources.

Table 4–7. GHG Emissions from Mobile Sources in Ukraine

Source	Annual Fuel Consumption	Aggregate Emission Factors (g/kg)			Total Emissions (Gg)
	(103 tons)	CO	NOx	Nmvocs	CO	NOx	Nmvocs
Heavy-duty Trucks
Gasoline	5,184.00	400	40	36	2,073.60	207.36	186.62
Diesel	2,560.00	20	20	5	51.20	51.20	12.80
Butane	31.70	150	25	30	4.76	0.79	0.95
Natural gas	162.40	140	22	25	22.74	3.57	4.06
Cars
Gasoline	3,800.00	400	40	36	1,520.00	152.00	136.80
Natural gas	12.00	150	25	30	1.80	0.30	0.36
Buses
Gasoline	1,301.00	400	40	36	520.40	52.04	46.84
Diesel	320.00	20	20	5	6.40	6.40	1.60
Butane	4.40	150	25	30	0.66	0.11	0.13
Natural gas	29.14	140	22	25	4.08	0.64	0.73
Total					4,205.64	474.41	390.89

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4.3 Industrial Processes

Greenhouse gas emissions from industrial processes were calculated according to the IPCC Methodology [6, 18]. The following industrial chemical processes were considered: nitric acid manufacture [2], adipic acid manufacture [9], CO₂ production and use (the main source is ammonia manufacture, the main consumer is carbamide manufacturing), cement production (calculations were based on clinker production volume), lime production and use (the main consumers are the sugar industry and construction), limestone use (the main consumers are iron and steel production [20], and glass manufacture), and soda manufacture and use.

Emission estimates for carbon dioxide and nitrogen oxides (Table 4–8 and Table 4–8) are based on statistical data on production volumes [14] and national emission factors obtained from stoichiometric equations for chemical reactions.

Table 4–8. CO₂ Emissions from Industrial Processes in Ukraine, Gg

Source	Emissions
Cement production	8,745.31
Lime manufacture and use	4,531.40
Soda manufacture and use	987.41
Limestone and Dolomite use	10,968.95
CO2 use and production	6,543.38
Total	31,776.45

Table 4–9. NO_x Emissions from Nitric and Adipic Acids Production in Ukraine, Gg

Source	Emissions
Nitric acid manufacture	7.51
Adipic acid manufacture	0.82
Total	8.33

Table 4–10 contains CO, NO_X Nmvocs emissions estimations for а number of industrial processes. Production volumes were obtained from the national statistics, and emission factors were taken from industrial emission standards for the former USSR.

Table 4–10. Indirect Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Industrial Processes

Production	Volume 1000 tons	Emission Factors, kg/t			Emissions, Gg
		CO	NOx	Nmvocs	CO	NOx	Nmvocs
Blast-furnace Sinter	60,926.50	32.80	0.40	-	1,998.49	24.37	-
Iron-ore Pellets	27,916.80	0.27	0.31	-	7.54	8.65	-
Coke	34,666.80	3.11	0.30	-	107.81	10.40	-
Rolled Ferrous Metal Produce	38,600.00	1.63	0.41	-	62.92	15.83	-
Steel Pipes	6,500.00	1.63	0.41	-	10.60	2.67	-
Steel	52,600.00	2.35	0.62	-	123.61	32.61	-
Pig-iron	44,900.00	-	0.09	-	-	4.04	-
Nitric Acid	2,780.20	3.19	-	-	8.87	-	-
Ammonia	5,149.59	1.06	0.77	-	5.46	3.97	-
Phosphate Fertilizers	593.00	0.21	0.04	-	0.12	0.02	-
Oil, primary refining	58,981.30	0.03	0.001	0.90	1.77	0.06	53.08
Clinker	17,500.00	20.00	2.28	-	350.00	39.90	-
Lime	8,677.00	59.30	3.19	-	514.55	27.68	-
Soda Ash	1,119.50	7.02	0.15	-	7.86	0.17	-
Acetic Acid	156.34	24.76	-	59.58	3.87	-	9.32
Formaline	205.21	2.97	-	0.42	0.60	-	0.09
Total					2105,998	170.37	62.49

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4.4 Agriculture

The main sources of GHG emissions in the category “Agriculture” were enteric fermentation and manure management in domestic livestock, rice cultivation and nitric fertilizers use. Crop residue burning is not widely used in Ukraine, so this source of emissions was not considered.

Initial data for the inventory of GHG emissions from agricultural activities were taken from statistics [14] and documents of the Ukrainian Agrarian University.

The emission factors for livestock were taken from the IPCC Guidelines [6]. The factors for manure were based on the fact that the Crimean region has а warm climate, other regions of the Ukraine have а temperate climate. For example, the emission factor for swine manure management is а weighted average based on the percent of total swine in the Crimean region in 1990 (2.4%) and the Eastern Europe emission factor for а warm climate, plus the percent of total swine in other regions (97.6%) and the Eastern Europe emission factor for а temperate climate: (0.024 x 11) + (0.976 x 7) = 7.10 (Table 4–11).

Table 4–11. Emissions Factors for Ukrainian Livestock

Source	Enteric Fermentation (kg CH4/ head/year)	Animal Wastes (kg CH4/ head/year)
Nondairy cattle	56	13.36
Dairy cattle	81	19.40
Goats	5	0.17
Sheep	5	0.16
Swines	5	7.10
Horses	5	0.61

The IPCC Methodology was used for estimating GHG emissions from rice cultivation. Three regions in Ukraine (the Crimean, Herson, and Odessa regions), have small areas under rice cultivation. The total harvested area in 1990 was 0.0281 Mha. The emission factor was defined using an average temperature of 25°C. The average growing period is 103 days.

Table 4–12 presents CH₄ emissions from agriculture in Ukraine in 1990.

Table 4–12. CH₄ Emissions from Agriculture in Ukraine, 1990

Source	CH4 Emissions, Gg
Enteric Fermentation	1,702.63
Manure Management	536.40
Rice Cultivation	15.17
Total	2,254.20

Assessments of N₂O emissions from nitric fertilizers were based on the IPCC Methodology and national statistics and totaled 10.237 Gg.

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4.5 Forestry and Land-use Change

In forestry and land-use change, CO₂ is mainly emitted as а result of the decay of damaged aboveground biomass and the burning of biomass at harvesting; and forest fires. Forests also sequester carbon (C) in the process of photosynthesis.

Several activities included in the IPCC Methodology for the forestry and land-use change category do not play any significant role in Ukraine. These include conversion of forest to agricultural land, conversion of grasslands and pastures, and abandonment of managed lands, excluding the abandonment zone in the Chernobyl region.

Emissions and uptake of CO₂ from forest management and afforestation of Chernobyl zone were estimated according to the IPCC Methodology [6]. For the calculation of the aboveground biomass growth rate, the C ratio in dry matter, and the wet-to-dry wood-weight ratio, data from national statistical publications were used [7, 8, 10, 19].

A method similar to the IPCC for forest clearing was used to estimate CO₂ emissions from forest fires. The difference between brush fires, which primarily destroy forest floor, and top fires, which destroy the tree layer, was taken into account. Average CO₂ emissions and uptake estimates were obtained for 1990 through an analysis of forest fires during а 9-year period (1986-1994).

Table 4–13 shows the estimates of CO₂ emissions and uptake from forestry and land-use management.

Table 4–13. CO₂ Emissions and Removals in the Category “Land Use Change and Forestry”

Source	CO2 Emissions and Removals, Gg
Forest Managed	-72,321.3
Harvests	20,683.7
Forest Fires	81.8
Abandonment of Lands	-420.6
Total	-51,976.4

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4.6 Waste

The IPCC Methodology [6] was used to determine CH₄ emissions from solid and liquid wastes.

One of the most important ecological problems in Ukraine is MSW management, annual increment of solid wastes totals 1.5 to 2% [16, 17]. According to national statistics, MSW was estimated to be 11 million tons in 1990, about 8% of which was treated on incineration plants in Kyiv, Kharkov, and Sevastopol. Methane was not recuperated from landfills in Ukraine in 1990 and CH₄ emissions from MSW totaled 885.5 Gg.

N₂O emissions from solid waste incineration were estimated according to IPCC methodology. The volume of incineration totaled 880 thousand tons, emission factor was taken as the average value of 26-270 grams of N₂O per ton of waste. N₂O emissions from waste incineration totaled 0.13 Gg in 1990.

Under Ukrainian conditions, rural wastewater decomposes under aerobic conditions. Therefore only urban wastewater was taken into account. In 1990, 3,684 million m³ of municipal wastewater were made in Ukraine, of which 3,597 million m³ (97%) were processed in sewage disposal facilities [12]. Wastewater treated under anaerobic conditions accounts for 15% of the total wastewater in Ukraine. To calculate CH₄ emissions from municipal wastewater, biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) in municipal wastewater was defined as 0.05 kg/person/ day. Applying the IPCC CH₄ emission factor of 0.22 Gg CH₄/gg BOD, emissions from municipal wastewater were estimated as 40.7 Gg CH₄. Taking into account recuperation of 6.24 Gg CH₄ on sewage disposal facilities in Kyiv and Kharkov [4], methane emissions from liquid wastes totaled 34.46 Gg.

Table 4–14 presents the results of the emissions assessment for industrial wastewater.

Table 4–14. CH₄ Emissions Assessment for Industrial Wastewater in Ukraine

Industry	Annual Wastewater, million m3	Wastewater Treated at Disposal Facilities, million m3	CH4 Annual Emission, Gg
Iron and steel	1,790.0	755.0	1.08
Nonferrous metals	25.9	11.1	0.02
Fertilizer	537.5	320.1	1.94
Food and beverages	197.4	68.7	5.08
Pulp and paper	102.1	93.6	1.04
Petrochemical	26.5	14.9	0.41
Textiles	31.8	31.5	0.94
Miscellaneous*		85.8	3.60
Total		1,380.70	14.11

* Microbiologic industry, transport, construction, and building materials production are accounted.

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4.7 References

1. Annual Report of the State Statistical Committee of Ukraine. 1993. Economy of Ukraine in 1992. Kyiv.
1. Atroshchenko V. I., and S. I. Kargin. 1980. The Nitric Acid Technology. Chemistry, Moscow.
2. Bykov, G. A., I. N. Karp, and A. I. Pyatnichko. 1993. The concept of balanced production and liquid and gaseous hydrocarbonic motor fuels consumption in Ukraine. Journal of Ecotechnologies and Resources Saving 4:9-13.
3. Horudgy, P. D. 1993. Exploitation of Water Supplying Systems and Sewer System. Science, Kyiv.
4. IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change). 1992. Climate Change 1992, The Supplementary Report to the IPCC Scientific Assessment. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 200.
5. Ipcc/oecd (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change/ Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development) Joint Programme. 1994. IPCC Draft Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories. Ipcc/oecd Joint Programme, Paris. 3 Volumes.
6. Ministry of Forestry. 1989. Forestry of Ukrainian SSR. Kyiv.
7. Molchanov, A. A. 1971. Productivity of Forest Biomass for Different Zones. Science, Moscow. 276.
8. Novitsky V. S. 1994. The concept of Ukrainian chemical industry reconstruction with account of its resource potential. Journal of Chemical Industry of Ukraine 1:4.
9. Regulative and Reference Materials for Taxation of Forestry of Ukraine and Moldova. 1987. Harvest, Kyiv.
10. Shpack, P.p., and B.l. Krupsъky. 1995. Oil and gas supplying problems in Ukraine. Journal of Energy Conservation Problems 1:15-20.
11. State Committee For Water Resources of Ukraine. 1991. The Report on Water Resources in Ukraine for 1990. Kyiv.
12. State Statistical Committee of Ukraine. 1991a. Atmospheric Air Protection in Ukraine for 1990. Kyiv.
13. State Statistical Committee of Ukraine. 1991b. Economy of Ukraine in 1990. Kyiv.
14. State Statistical Committee of Ukraine, 1991c. Energy Balance of Ukraine for 1990. Kyiv.
15. State Statistical Committee of Ukraine. 1991d. The National Report on Environment of Ukraine. Kyiv.
16. State Statistical Committee of Ukraine. 1991e. Ukrainian Production. Kyiv.
17. UNEP, OECD, IEA, IPCC (United Nations Environment Programme, Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, International Energy Agency, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change). 1995. IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas inventories. IPCC, Bracknell. 3 Volumes.
18. Usolъtsev V. A. 1985. Structure and Dynamic of Phytomass of Timber Stands. Forestry, Krasnoyarsk.
19. Vegmon, E.f. 1989. Metallurgy of Iron. Metallurgy, Moscow.
20. Zabigajlo, V.e. 1995. Ukrainian coal industry development. Journal of Energy Conservation Problems 1:3-7.
21. Country study on Climate Change in Ukraine: Development of Greenhouse Gas Emissions Inventory. Final Report. Agency for Rational Energy Use and Ecology, Kyiv, 1995.
22. Country study on Climate Change in Ukraine: Development of Greenhouse Gas Emissions Inventory. Final Report. (Supplement). Agency for Rational Energy Use and Ecology, Kyiv, 1995.

NATIONAL CIRCUMSTANCES

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POLICIES AND MEASURES TO MITIGATE CLIMATE CHANGE